Restoration of diversity and regeneration of woody species through area exclosure: the case of Maun International Airport in northern Botswana
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.38201/btha.abc.v53.i1.1Keywords:
density, evenness, population structure, regenerationAbstract
Background and objectives: Deforested and degraded areas can be cheaply and conveniently restored through establishment of exclosures. An area exclosure excludes animals and humans from accessing an area to promote natural regeneration of plants and rehabilitate ecological condition of the area. The study was aimed at: (1) determining the diversity (species richness, diversity and evenness); (2) assessing the stand structure (densities); and (3) assessing regeneration status of woody species inside and outside exclosed Maun International Airport, northern Botswana.
Methods: Vegetation sampling was conducted from April to May 2018. A total of 48 and 37 quadrats of 20 × 20 m were laid down at 50 m intervals along transect lines inside and outside Maun International Airport, respectively. Identity, number of all live individuals and height of all woody species were recorded in all the quadrats. The diversity of all woody species was analysed by using the Shannon Diversity Index (H’) and regeneration status of each woody species was assessed using frequency distribution of height class.
Results: The diversity, evenness and species richness were significantly higher inside than outside Maun International Airport. Colophospermum mopane was the most abundant species both inside (75% of all woody species) and outside (96% of all woody species) Maun International Airport. More species showed more regeneration inside than outside Maun International Airport. The inside of Maun International Airport recorded more alien invasive woody species compared with the outside, owing to its original use as a residential area. The local communities might have introduced these species as ornamental trees.
Conclusion: This study, while limited in scale, contributes to understanding of the role of exclosures in enhancing woody species richness, diversity and evenness as well as facilitating regeneration of woody species. Degraded woodlands and other similar ecosystems could be cheaply and conveniently restored through establishment of exclosures, but more research and monitoring are required to fully understand the processes and impacts.
Downloads
References
Asmare, M.T. & Gure, A., 2019, ‘Effect of exclosure on woody species diversity and population structure in comparison with adjacent open grazing land: the case of Jabi Tehnan District northwestern Ethiopia’, Ecosystem Health and Sustainability 5(1), 98–109, https://doi.org/10.1080/20964129.2019.1593794.
Atsbha, T., Desta, A.B. & Zewdu, T., 2019, ‘Woody species diversity, population structure, and regeneration status in the Gra-Kahsu natural vegetation, southern Tigray of Ethiopia’, Heliyon 5(1), e01120, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e01120.
Bageel, A., Honda, M.D., Carrillo, J.T. & Borthakur, D, 2020, ‘Giant leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala subsp. glabrata): a versatile tree-legume for sustainable agroforestry’, Agroforestry Systems 94(1), 251–268, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-019-00392-6.
Bastin, G., Ludwig, J., Eager, R., Liedloff, A., Andison, R. & Cobiac, M., 2003, ‘Vegetation changes in a semiarid tropical savanna, northern Australia: 1973–2002’, The Rangeland Journal 25(1), 3–19, https://doi.org/10.1071/RJ03001.
Bengtsson-Sjörs, K., 2006, Establishment and survival of woody seedlings in a semi-arid savanna in southern Botswana, Minor field studies 123, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.
Blackie, I. & Casadevall, S.R., 2019, ‘The impact of wildlife hunting prohibition on the rural livelihoods of local communities in Ngamiland and Chobe District Areas, Botswana’, Cogent Social Sciences 5, 1, https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2018.1558716.
Bory, G. & Clair-Maczulajtys, D., 1980, ‘Production, dissemination and polymorphism of seeds in Ailanthus altissima’, Revue génerale de botanique 88(1049/1051), 297–311.
Boy, G. & Witt, A., 2013, Invasive alien plants and their management in Africa, pp. 177. CABI Africa, Nairobi.
Call, L.J. & Nilsen, E.T., 2005, ‘Analysis of interactions between the invasive tree-of-heaven (Ailanthus altissima) and the native black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia)’, Plant Ecology 176(2), 275–285, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11258-004-0338-0.
Civil Aviation Authority of Botswana (CAAB), 2019, Civil Aviation Authority of Botswana, Newsletter, Issue 1/2019, www.caab.co.bw/wp-content/uploads/CAAB-Newsletter-2019-18-21.pdf (accessed 20 June 2020).
Chow, J., Doria, G., Kramer, R., Schneider, T. & Stoike, J., 2013, ‘Tropical forests under a changing climate and innovations in tropical forest management’, Tropical Conservation Science 6(3), 315–324, https://doi.org/10.1177/194008291300600302.
Chivandi, E., Davidson, B.C. & Erlwanger, K.H., 2012, ‘Red sour plum (Ximenia caffra) seed: A potential nonconventional energy and protein source for livestock feeds’, International Journal of Agriculture & Biology 1, 14(4).
Dallimer, M., Irvine, K.N., Skinner, A.M., Davies, Z.G., Rouquette, J.R., Maltby, L.L. & Gaston, K.J., 2012, ‘Biodiversity and the feel-good factor: understanding associations between self-reported human well-being and species richness’, BioScience 62(1), 47–55, https://doi.org/10.1525/bio.2012.62.1.9.
De Sousa Machado, M.T., Drummond, J.A. & Barreto, C.G., 2020, ‘Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit in Brazil: history of an invasive plant’, Estudos Ibero-Americanos 46(1), e33976-e33976, https://doi.org/10.15448/1980-864X.2020.1.33976.
Ebrahimi, M., Khosravi, H. & Rigi, M., 2016, ‘Short-term grazing exclusion from heavy livestock rangelands affects vegetation cover and soil properties in natural ecosystems of southeastern Iran’, Ecological Engineering 95, 10–18, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2016.06.069.
Elliot, S., Blakesley, D. & Hardwick, K., 2013, Restoring tropical forests: a practical guide, Kew: Royal Botanic Gardens.
Ewel, J.J., 1999, ‘Natural systems as models for the design of sustainable systems of land use’, Agroforestry Systems 45(1), 1–21, https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1006219721151.
Flyman, M.V., 1999, ‘The fate of woody plant seedlings in the presence and absence of large herbivores in a semi-arid savanna’, MPhil Thesis, University of Botswana, Gaborone.
Gebregerges, T., Tessema, Z.K. & Birhane, E., 2018, ‘Effect of exclosure ages on woody plant structure, diversity and regeneration potential in the western Tigray region of Ethiopia’, Journal of Forestry Research 29(3), 697–707, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11676-017-0512-6.
Global Invasive Species Programme (GISP), 2008, ‘Assessing the risk of invasive alien species promoted for biofuels’, available at: http://www.gisp.org/whatsnew/docs/biofuels.pdf (accessed 11 August 2020).
Gordon, D.R., Tancig, K.J., Onderdonk, D.A. & Gantz, C.A., 2011, ‘Assessing the invasive potential of biofuel species proposed for Florida and the United States using the Australian Weed Risk Assessment’, Biomass and Bioenergy 35(1), 74–79, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2010.08.029.
Griscom, H.P. & Ashton, M.S., 2011, ‘Restoration of dry tropical forests in Central America: a review of pattern and process’, Forest Ecology and Management 261(10), 1564–1579, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2010.08.027.
Hasnat, G.T. & Hossain, M.K., 2020, ‘Global overview of tropical dry forests’, in Handbook of research on the conservation and restoration of tropical dry forests (pp. 1–23), IGI Global.
Heath, A. & Heath, R., 2009, Field guide to the plants of northern Botswana, including the Okavango Delta, Kew: Kew Publishing, Royal Botanic Gardens.
Henderson, L., 2001, ‘Alien weeds and invasive plants’, Plant Protection Research Institute, Handbook No. 12. Cape Town, South Africa: Paarl Printers.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 2014, Climate Change 2014: Impacts, adaptations and vulnerability Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK.
Inoussa, M.M., Padonou, E.A., Lykke, A.M., Kakaï, R.G., Bakasso, Y., Mahamane, A. & Saadou, M., 2017, ‘Contrasting population structures of two keystone woodland species of W National Park, Niger’, South African Journal of Botany 112, 95–101, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2017.05.010.
Iverson, L.R., Rebbeck, J., Peters, M.P., Hutchinson, T. & Fox, T., 2019, ‘Predicting Ailanthus altissima presence across a managed forest landscape in southeast Ohio’, Forest Ecosystems, 6(1), 1–13.
Kabubo-Mariara, J., 2013, ‘Forest-poverty nexus: exploring the contribution of forests to rural livelihoods in Kenya’, Natural Resources Forum (Vol. 37, No. 3, pp. 177–188).
Käller, A., 2003, ‘Growth pattern and reproduction of woody vegetation in a semi-arid savanna in southern Botswana’, Minor Field Studies 86, Uppsala University, Uppsala.
Kuete, V., 2014, ‘Physical, hematological, and histopathological signs of toxicity induced by African medicinal plants’, In Toxicological survey of African medicinal plants pp. 635–657, Elsevier Inc., https://doi.org/10.1016/C2013-0-15406-2.
Leakey, R.R.B., 1999, ‘Potential for novel food products from agroforestry trees: a review’, Food Chemistry 66, 1–14, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0308-8146(98)00072-7.
Liu, X., Zhang, X., Zhang, L., Li, Y., Zhao, L., Xu, S. & Gu, S., 2019, ‘Using functional trait diversity to infer community assembly mechanisms: an exclosure experiment as an example’, Journal of Plant Ecology 12(3), 448–459, https://doi.org/10.1093/jpe/rty030.
Maabong, K.E. & Mphale, K., 2021, ‘Wildfires in Botswana and their frequency of occurrence’, Atmospheric and Climate Sciences, 11(4), 689–696.
Makhado, R.A., Mapaure, I., Potgieter, M.J., Luus-Powell, W.J. & Saidi, A.T., 2014, ‘Factors influencing the adaptation and distribution of Colophospermum mopane in southern Africa’s mopane savannas – A review’, Bothalia 44(1), 1–9, http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/ABC.v44i1.152.
Mazvimavi, D. & Mmopelwa, G., 2006, ‘Access to water in gazetted and ungazetted rural settlements in Ngamiland, Botswana’, Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C 31(15–16), 713–722, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2006.08.036.
Mbaiwa, J.E., 2018, ‘Effects of the safari hunting tourism ban on rural livelihoods and wildlife conservation in Northern Botswana’, South African Geographical Journal 100(1), 41–61, https://doi.org/10.1080/03736245.2017.1299639.
Mbaiwa, J.E. & Hambira, W.L., 2020, ‘Enclaves and shadow state tourism in the Okavango Delta, Botswana’, South African Geographical Journal 102(1), 1–21, https://doi.org/10.1080/03736245.2019.1601592.
Mbatha, K.R. & Ward, D., 2010, ‘Effects of herbivore exclosures on variation in quality and quantity of plants among management and habitat types in a semiarid savanna’, African Journal of Range & Forage Science 27(1), 1–9, https://doi.org/10.2989/10220111003703435.
McCarthy, T.S., 2006, ‘Groundwater in the wetlands of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its contribution to the structure and function of the ecosystem’, Journal of Hydrology 320(3–4), 264–282, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2005.07.045.
McCarthy, T.S., Cooper, G.R., Tyson, P.D. & Ellery, W.N., 2000, ‘Seasonal flooding in the Okavango Delta, Botswana – recent history and future prospects’, South African Journal of Science 96(1), 25–33.
Mmolai E., 2015, ‘Maun International Airport Botswana aviation hub’, http://www.dailynews.gov.bw/news-details.php?nid=21906, (accessed: 1 July 2020).
Moleele, N.M., 1998, ‘Encroacher woody plant browse as feed for cattle. Cattle diet composition for three seasons at Olifants Drift, southeast Botswana’, Journal of Arid Environments 40(3), 255–268.
Moleele, N.M. & Perkins, J.S., 1998, ‘Encroaching woody plant species and boreholes: is cattle density the main driving factor in the Olifants Drift communal grazing lands, southeastern Botswana’, Journal of Arid Environments 40(3), 245–253, https://doi.org/10.1006/jare.1998.0451.
Moore, A.E. & Attwell, C.A.M., 1999, ‘Geological controls on the distribution of woody vegetation in the central Kalahari, Botswana’, South African Journal of Geology 102, 350–362.
Morgenroth, J., Östberg, J., van den Bosch, C.K., Nielsen, A.B., Hauer, R., Sjöman, H. & Jansson, M., 2016, ‘Urban tree diversity – taking stock and looking ahead’, Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 15, 1–5, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2015.11.003.
Naidu, M.T. & Kumar, O.A., 2016, ‘Tree diversity, stand structure, and community composition of tropical forests in Eastern Ghats of Andhra Pradesh, India’, Journal of Asia-Pacific Biodiversity 9(3), 328–334, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.japb.2016.03.019.
Neelo, J., Teketay, D., Kashe, K. & Masamba, W., 2015, ‘Stand structure, diversity and regeneration status of woody species in open and exclosed dry woodland sites around Molapo farming areas of the Okavango Delta, Northeastern Botswana’, Open Journal of Forestry 5(04), 313. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojf.2015.54027.
Neelo, J., Teketay, D., Masamba, W. & Kashe, K., 2013, ‘Diversity, population structure and regeneration status of woody species in Dry Woodlands Adjacent to Molapo Farms in Northern Botswana’, Open Journal of Forestry 3(04), 138, https://doi.org/10.4236/ojf.2013.34022.
Negussie, A., Achten, W.M., Norgrove, L., Hermy, M. & Muys, B., 2013, ‘Invasiveness risk of biofuel crops using Jatropha curcas L. as a model species’, Biofuels, Bioproducts and Biorefining 7(5), 485–498, https://doi.org/10.1002/bbb.1416.
Park, K.H., Qu, Z.Q., Wan, Q.Q., Ding, G.D. & Wu, B., 2013, ‘Effects of enclosures on vegetation recovery and succession in Hulunbeier steppe, China’, Forest Science and Technology 9(1), 25–32, https://doi.org/10.1080/21580103.2013.774124.
PIER., 2008, Pacific Islands ecosystems at risk, Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry, USA, Available at: http://www.hear.org/pier/index.html, (accessed 11 August 2020).
Setshogo, M.P., 2002, Common names of some flowering plants of Botswana, FAO, Rome, Italy.
Setshogo, M.P., 2005, Preliminary checklist of the plants of Botswana, Southern African Botanical Diversity Network (SABONET), Pretoria, South Africa.
Setshogo, M.P. & Venter, F., 2003, Trees of Botswana: names and distribution, Southern African Botanical Diversity Network (SABONET), Pretoria, South Africa.
Shackleton, C., 2002, ‘Growth and fruit production of Sclerocarya birrea in the South African lowveld’, Agroforestry Systems, 55(3), 175–180, https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1020579213024.
Shackleton, C. & Shackleton, S., 2004, ’The importance of non-timber forest products in rural livelihood security and as safety nets: a review of evidence from South Africa‘, South African Journal of Science 100(11), 658–664.
Shaw, R.F., Iason, G.R., Pakeman, R.J. & Young, M.R., 2010, ‘Regeneration of Salix arbuscula and Salix lapponum within a large mammal exclosure: the impacts of microsite and herbivory’, Restoration Ecology 18, 1–9, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1526-100X.2010.00720.x.
Silcock, J.L. & Fensham, R.J., 2013, ‘Arid vegetation in disequilibrium with livestock grazing: evidence from long-term exclosures’, Austral Ecology 38(1), 57–65, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1442-9993.2012.02374.x.
Siyum, Z.G., 2020, ‘Tropical dry forest dynamics in the context of climate change: syntheses of drivers, gaps, and management perspectives’, Ecological Processes 9, 1–16, https://doi.org/10.1186/s13717-020-00229-6.
Statistics Botswana, 2014, 2011 Population and Housing Census., Botswana Statistics, Botswana: Gaborone.
Teketay, D., 2005, ‘Seed and regeneration ecology in dry Afromontane forests of Ethiopia: I. Seed production-population structures’, Tropical Ecology 46(1), 29–44.
Teketay, D., Geeves, G., Kopong, I., Mojeremane, W., Sethebe, B. & Smith, S., 2016, ‘Diversity, stand structure and regeneration status of woody species, and spatial cover of herbaceous species in Mokolodi Nature Reserve, Southeastern Botswana’, International Journal of Biodiversity and Conservation 8(8), 180–195. https://doi.org/10.5897/IJBC2016.0977.
Teketay, D., Kashe, K., Madome, J., Kabelo, M., Neelo, J., Mmusi, M. & Masamba, W., 2018, ‘Enhancement of diversity, stand structure and regeneration of woody species through area exclosure: the case of a mopane woodland in northern Botswana’, Ecological Processes 7(1), 1–15, https://doi.org/10.1186/s13717-018-0116-x.
Tietema, T., Ditlhogo, M., Tibone, C. & Mathalaza, N., 1991, ‘Characteristics of eight firewood species of Botswana’, Biomass and Bioenergy 1(1), 41–46, https://doi.org/10.1016/0961-9534(91)90050-M.
Tolsma, D.J., Ernst, W.H.O. & Verwey, R.A., 1987, ‘Nutrients in soil and vegetation around two artificial waterpoints in eastern Botswana’, Journal of Applied Ecology 24, 991–1000.
Ubuy, M.H., Eid, T. & Bollandsås, O.M., 2018, ‘Variation in wood basic density within and between tree species and site conditions of exclosures in Tigray, northern Ethiopia’, Trees 32(4), 967–983, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00468-018-1689-9.
USDA-NRCS., 2008, The PLANTS Database. National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, USA, available at: http://plants.usda.gov (accessed: 11 August 2020).
Van Passel, J., De Keersmaecker, W. & Somers, B., 2020, ‘Monitoring woody cover dynamics in tropical dry forest ecosystems using sentinel-2 satellite imagery’, Remote Sensing, 12(8), 1276. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12081276.
Veenendaal, E.M., Mantlana, K.B., Pammenter, N.W., Weber, P., Huntsman-Mapila, P. & Lloyd, J., 2008, ‘Growth form and seasonal variation in leaf gas exchange of Colophospermum mopane savanna trees in northwest Botswana’, Tree Physiology, 28(3), 417–424.
Wairore, J.N., Mureithi, S.M., Wasonga, O.V. & Nyberg, G., 2016, ‘Benefits derived from rehabilitating a degraded semi-arid rangeland in private enclosures in West Pokot County, Kenya’, Land Degradation & Development 27(3), 532–541, https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.2420.
Wakeling, J.L. & Bond, W.J., 2007, ‘Disturbance and the frequency of root suckering in an invasive savanna shrub, Dichrostachys cinerea’, African Journal of Range and Forage Science 24(2), 73–76, https://doi.org/10.2989/AJRFS.2007.24.2.3.157.
Whitmore, T., 1996, ‘A review of some aspects of tropical rainforest seedling ecology with suggestions for further enquiry’, in Swaine, M. (ed.), The ecology of tropical forest tree seedlings, Parthenon Publishing, Paris, pp. 3–9.
Wigley, B.J., Fritz, H., Coetsee, C. & Bond, W.J., 2014, ‘Herbivores shape woody plant communities in the Kruger National Park: Lessons from three long-term exclosures’, Koedoe 56(1), 1–12.
Wolski, P. & Murray-Hudson, M., 2008, ‘An investigation of permanent and transient changes in flood distribution and outflows in the Okavango Delta, Botswana’, Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C 33(1–2), 157–164, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2007.04.008.
Wynberg, R., Cribbins, J., Leakey, R., Lombard, C., Mander, M., Shackleton, S. & Sullivan, C., 2002, ‘Knowledge on Sclerocarya birrea subsp. caffra with emphasis on its importance as a non-timber forest product in South and southern Africa: a Summary: Part 2: Commercial use, tenure and policy, domestication, intellectual property rights and benefit-sharing’, The Southern African Forestry Journal 196(1), 67–77, https://doi.org/10.1080/20702620.2002.10434620.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2022 Keotshephile Kashe, Demel Teketay, Mmusi Mmusi, Meleko Khululo Galelebalwe
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
